The Past and Future of Bioremediation

This is a general informative paper on the topic of bioremediation.

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The Earth’s biomass is said to be composed of sixty percent bacteria,# meaning that more than half of the total weight of living organisms on this planet is comprised of individual organisms that are so small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye without the use of a microscope. To put this into perspective, one bacterium weighs approximately 0.00000000001 grams. Approximately 1.2 million species of bacteria are known to exist, and it is estimated that more than five million are in existence.# What is even more impressive than their sheer numbers is their ability to adapt and roles in various biological functions and chemical processes. Bacteria are more than just “germs,” but rather they hold quite an important position in the ecology and health of this world. They are found in almost all types of environments on Earth, from deep-sea thermal vents to, deep inside solid rock, to the cooling jackets of nuclear reactors.# Humans have harnessed the abilities of these organisms for pest control, agricultural purposes, antibiotics, and more.


Microorganisms like bacteria are indubitably important in the functioning of the natural world. In fact, in the past century, researchers and scientists have realized that they might be the key to undoing some of humans’ errors pertaining to the environment. They have been harnessing the abilities of bacteria to treat environments contaminated with a variety of organic and inorganic compounds in a technology called bioremediation. A great multitude of bacteria of this world have boundless potential in cleaning pollutants in many different contaminated environments, and this technology should be supported and utilized whenever possible, as it is a safer alternative than other methods used for waste disposal and site cleanup.


Bioremediation in defined by experts in the field, Barry King, Gilbert Long, and John Sheldon, as a “treatability technology that uses biological activity to reduce the concentration or toxicity of a pollutant. It commonly uses processes by which microorganisms transform or degrade chemicals in the environment.”# Basically, this technology utilizes various microorganisms like bacteria to clean up toxins in the environment. Bacteria and other organisms like fungi or plants are capable of degrading a great number of organic pollutants and can be used strategically to decontaminate water systems, the soil, and so on.


The idea behind bioremediation is simple enough: the activities of living organisms are used to clean up contaminations in the environment. This, in fact, is a naturally occurring process, but bioremediation stimulates or speeds up the process. Microorganisms that already exist in nature degrade various types of waste, but they need nutrients, carbon, and energy to survive and multiply, just like all living creatures.# Where the environmental pollutants are harmful to human beings and other fellow eukaryotes great and small, these prokaryotes are capable of breaking down specified organic contaminants to obtain food and energy. Typically, the pollutants are degraded into less harmful or harmless substances such as salts, gases like carbon dioxide, and water.5 Microorganisms are either introduced to or cultured in the polluted site, and potential waste clean ups include petroleum, arsenic, chlorinated compounds,# lube oils, alcohols, fuels, some solvents, simple and moderately complex organics, nitrogen- and oxygen-substituted compounds,7 and potentially more. More research and experimentation could prove fruitful in determining the potential of bioremediation being used for a multitude of other pollutants.


There are three types of strategies used to implement microorganisms and bacteria in a bioremediation project: biostimulation, bioaugmentation, and intrinsic treatment.# Biostimulation becomes an available option when testing shows “the presence of a viable native population or community of specific contaminant-degrading microbes already in the site.”7 This is the least invasive process because indigenous microbes are merely encouraged to grow by means of the ascertaining the proper environment and resources that they optimally live at. The vast majority of bioremediation successes have implemented the stimulation of native microbes. However, when testing shows that the native populations of microorganisms will not likely improve the amount of contaminants at a site, species of microbes are purchased and artificially introduced into the soil and/or water. This process is called bioaugmentation.


The bioaugmentation method has not proven quite as effective as biostimulation because there is no single species that can overcome every pollutant. In other words, there is no one “hero species”7 that is a specific pollutant destructor. Indigenous species have an advantage over introduced organisms because they are already adapted to the environment and food. The new species typically become undetectable within a few days after being introduced. That being said, there have been some successful projects where sites have become quickly remediated through addition of purchased specific degrading microbial products. Certainly there is a lot of potential for advances in this field to make the availability of safe, adapted, or engineered organisms that have viability as well as capability to destroy specific pollutants in the field.#


Finally, intrinsic treatment might be used if biostimulation and bioaugmentation are too expensive, slow, or found not to be viable options. This method allows nature to handle the pollutant in due course. This is an approved remediation strategy that requires “regular monitoring for specific site contaminants, microbial health and numbers, and possibly other parameters as appropriate.”7 This method is often used when cleanup sites require expenditure of tax dollars or the government would rather not pay for it. Of course, if contaminants do not show a steady decline, other methods must be implemented.


Long before environmental processes were regulated, bioremediation was already working towards maintaining public health. In other words, bacteria and other microorganisms have long been at work processing human wastes. Since ancient times when the Romans and others built intricate networks of sewers as early as 600 B.C.,8 microorganisms did the work of biodegradation of organic waste in the collection vats and lagoons that were constructed to prevent system backup and overload. Though the Romans thought this to be some sort of “self-purification,” in reality microscopic organisms that were not yet known to exist at that time metabolized the waste. Modern sewage systems still utilize microbial degradation of wastes.


Various federal cleanup acts in the United States began as early as the late 1800s as hazardous materials in the environment became a growing concern. The first environmental legislation that passed was the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899.7 The Insecticide Act of 1910, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1947, and the Solid Waste Disposal Act and Water Quality Act of 1965 were some early attempts to directly control pollution. With the passage of the federal National Environmental Policy Act of 1962, the Clean Water Act of 1972, the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, and the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970, there was finally a means of regulating environmental health. However, after decades of waste dumping, chemical spills, atmospheric pollutants, and various other forms of disregard for the natural world, damage had already been done and still to this day occurs, whether intentionally or not. Preventive and remedial acts were necessary in preserving the delicate landscape.


The 1970s and 1980s marked the beginning of the age of remediation as the environmental future became a fundamental topic. “The realization that terrestrial, atmospheric, and aquatic resources might, in fact, be finite led some early visionaries to encourage legislation that required cleanup of this ‘mess’ and prophylactic measures to further inhibit degeneration of our natural resources.”# People began to realize that if they wanted their children to have available not only the wonders of but also the resources that the environment offers, they would have to nurture the land back to health and prevent further degradation. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) greatly influenced the regulation of pollution and provided some incentive to properly dispose of wastes. Waste became a liability, and many companies did not want to focus their efforts on their primary business and would rather let qualified consultants and contractors handle waste management, treatment, and disposal. However, the CERCLA requirements for predisposal treatment, there is a term called “Potentially Responsible Party”9 which means that in U.S. industry, “as long as the waste exists, liability persists.”9 This means that if any contaminants from a business cause problems down the road, that company is still held responsible. Because this shadow of continuing liability exists, bioremediation is becoming an attractive means for waste cleanup since contaminants are completely destroyed or detoxified.


Aside from the benefits that contaminants are destroyed or detoxified and liability is eliminated, there are other incentives to use bioremediation as a means of pollution cleanup. According to King, Long, and Sheldon, the other major benefits of this technology include attractive economics, as bioremediation is often more cost effective than traditional waste disposal methods and jobs are created in the process; undisturbed environments with some methods of application; and it is universal, meaning that is can often treat water, soil, sludges, and air.# Though bioremediation is not right for every pollutant situation, when it is a plausible form of decontamination, it does great things.


The people opposed to bioremediation projects are generally uneducated about all the facts, likening the process to something from a science fiction novel hearing and nothing of the many successful remediation projects. The fact that bacteria are applied to these sites alarms some people because they think bacteria are scary.10 Many people associate bacteria with disease and sickness, but the truth of the matter is that bacteria are everywhere, and though pathogenic species do exist, thousands of different kinds live among and inside humans symbiotically as well. To put it into perspective, “There are ten times more microbial cells on or in the human body than there are cells making up the body” (Black 404). This means that there are more foreign cells on our person than makes up our person! This reinforces the idea that bacteria are not the scary “germs” that some people associate them with. Certainly they can do great things, both to the detriment and to the benefit of the human population. Bioremediation is one way to harness this power in a positive light.


Others cannot agree with the process of introducing foreign organisms into places they were never meant to be. While it is true that humans have destroyed entire ecosystems by carelessly introducing species to a foreign environment—the zebra mussels in the Great Lakes, for example—the species of bacteria that are introduced in bioremediation projects are not quite so invasive, if non-indigenous species are even used at all. “After addition, these introduced microbes often rapidly decrease in number and can become undetectable within a few days.”# Introduced bacteria tend not to remain at the site once treatments are completely through. As a general rule of thumb, people should not mess with Mother Nature, but in bioremediation people are attempting to work with the Earth for mutual benefits. It really is nature’s way to a cleaner environment.


Finally, if the ethical aspect of bioremediation is not disputed, the economical benefits are. Some argue without basis that it is not cost effective or cost efficient. While it is true that bioremediation is not an overnight fix, it can potentially save a large percentage of the cost of some other treatment technology in the long run. There is always a risk in trying any procedure, but “the most that can be at stake if bioremediation proves ineffective is possibly two months of time and several thousand dollars in expense.”11 However, if it does prove successful for a particular site, it is drastically more economical than standard procedures, if money is what is important. At the very least, bioremediation should at least be considered if microbe-degradable contaminants are present.


One relatively recent bioremediation project from 1994 to 1995 involved the cleanup of approximately 6,000 cubic yards of soil contaminated with fuel oil, a liquid petroleum product.12 At a central California winery, a former underground storage tank held fuel oil that was used in the boiler operation at the winery. Over time, the fuel oil leaked through the wooden storage tank and accumulated in the surrounding soil. The site was a potential candidate for bacterial remediation, and so the soil was "excavated, removed, and spread out on an adjacent four-acre field."12 The case study does not specify why it had to have been transported. Twelve treatment cells were marked and constructed, presumably to test and compare different variables. After this, a series of soil sampling and chemical analysis determined the initial petroleum-hydrocarbon concentration, pH, and moisture content. Just as in science experiments, without this initial data collection, the success of the project could not be determined. After all the preliminary tests were finished, products consisting of vitamins, minerals, bioenhancement liquid nutrients, and other compounds were added to a 4,000 gallon water truck, along with "naturally occurring hydrocarbon digesting microorganisms.”# This mixture of supplements and organisms was then evenly applied to the treatment cells. This procedure was repeated three times over the summer season. Intermittent soil mixing and aeration occurred, along with additional water added to the twelve cells to maintain a reasonable moisture content. After these months of treatment, the soil was again sampled and analyzed, and the results are proof of the success of this particular bioremediation project. "After one month of treatment and prior to the second scheduled treatment.... the petroleum hydrocarbon concentration in the cells ranged from 940 to 2,600 mg/kg with an average of 1,820 mg/kg, or a 43% reduction."12 Only a month into the project and nearly half of the pollutants had already been degraded. After eleven months, chemical analysis indicated that the total petroleum hydrocarbon concentration was reduced from upwards to 4,550 parts per million to 125 parts per million. The target level for closure was 100 parts per million. Regulatory agencies granted closure to the site after further testing and results indicated that the concentrations no longer posed a threat to human health or the environment.#


In this case study, the soil was cleansed, but biological remediates have the potential to detoxify unwanted contaminants in the atmosphere, rivers, streams, and the ocean as well. Just recently in the spring and summer of 2010, bioremediates helped to clean up one of the largest accidental marine oil spills in the history of the petroleum industry.# They proved to be more effective than the chemical dispersants ejected into the oil and gas from BP’s Deepwater Horizon oil spill, and markedly less obtrusive. Because of microorganisms’ impressive abilities to digest that which humans cannot otherwise decompose, ecologists are examining the abilities of a number of prokaryotes to carry out bioremediation of various environments.# Scientists have already sequenced the genomes of at least seven different prokaryotic species, including one bacterium that is of particular interest; Shewanella oneidensis can metabolize more than ten elements in the presence and absence of oxygen. For example, it can convert soluble uranium, chromium, and nitrogen into insoluble forms that are less likely to leach into streams or groundwater. These are exciting studies and should be further endorsed. Bioremediation is not only a viable means to clean pollutants, but it also is the most harmonious way to involve ourselves in the purifying of our land.

 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Andelin, John, and Robert W. Niblock. Bioremediation for Marine Oil Spills. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991.
Arent, Lindsey. "Pollution Cleanup Goes to Waste." 1999. Wired Science. 22 February 2012. .
Arujanan, Mahaletchumy, and Tan Jung Ye. Bioremediation: Nature's Way to a Cleaner Environment. Selangor, Malaysia: MABIC, 2005.
"Bioremediation." 2011. USGS: Science For A Changing World. 21 February 2012. .
Black, Jacquelyn G. Microbiology: Principles and Exploration. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2008.
Burger, Joanna, ed. Before and After an Oil Spill: The Arthur Kill. New York: Rutgers University Press, 1994.
Chapelle, F.H. "Bioremediation: Nature's Way to a Cleaner Environment." 1997. United States Geological Survey. 22 February 2012. .
Damschen, Donald E., Dr. Lee Chee Chow, Xie Rongjing, and Christine P.C. Lim. "Bioremediation Technologies for Decontamination of Chlorinated Organics and Petroleum-Impacted Sites." 2007. Advanced Biotech. 22 February 2012. http://www.adbio.com/biorem/abstract.htm.
Campbell, Neil A. and Jane B. Reece. Biology, 8th Ed. California: Pearson Education, Inc., 2008.
Gartner, John. "Oil Eaters Slurp Up Spills." 2004. Wired Science. 22 February 2012. http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2004/12/66017.
"Environmental Tech." Modern Marvels, The History Channel. 2 February 2007.
Farabee, M.J. “Biological Diversity: Bacteria and Archaeans.” 2010. Maricopa Education. 20 March 2012. http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/ biobookdiversity_2.html
Fingerman, Milton and Rachakonda Nagabhushanam, eds. Bioremediation of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems. New Hampshire: Science Publishers, 2005.
King, Barry, Gilbert M. Long, and John K. Sheldon. Practical Environmental Bioremediation: The Field Guide. Florida: CRC Press LLC, 1998.
U.S. EPA. April 2011. A Citizen's Guide to Bioremediation [Brochure].

The Semiotics of Latin Dance

I've been becoming more interested and involved in salsa dancing since the beginning of this year, and thought I would take a deeper look into the realms of the culture.

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Dancing is an art form that transcends geographical and cultural boundaries, as evident by the appreciation of movement in general. It is like a universal language, where the body speaks so mouths do not have to. Latin dance is no exception. Dances like the cha cha cha, merengue, tango, and rumba have crossed borders all over the world and have become national phenomena in the United States, with studios appearing in states all over the country and millions of people learning a variety of these styles. As enthusiastic as some people might be about these art forms, often the history and significance of these dances are lost to the general populace. According to Anthony Shay, award winning choreographer and author of Dancing Across Borders, “many, if not most, of those mainstream Americans who dance Latin American dances have little idea of the specific countries and societies in which a dance originated” (11). They regard the dance styles as dangerously sexy and try to reflect that in the exotic Latin form, but the dance goes a lot deeper than that. Where did they originate? How have they evolved and adapted to merge so easily in this country? How have its meanings changed over time, and how does this differ for men and women? The semiotics of dance are open to many different interpretations, but each can unravel underlying values and implications of a people and their culture.

           

The broad category of “Latin American dance” is characterized generally as fast-paced and sensual, with obvious hip movements and distinctive partnered steps. However, this label encompasses a very wide range of styles. The term “Latin America” encompasses the nations of South and Central America and the Caribbean, so the diversity among Latin dances is great. What all of them seem to have in common is a blending of various influences. Anthony Shay explains that “many of the Latin American dances have folk dance or social dance roots, some of the dances of African origins have spiritual and religious roots, and local as well as Spanish, European, and African origins” (169). Latin music dance is a convolution of the beats and rhythms of many different cultures, blending Indigenous, European, and African forms together into a truly mestizo, or mixed, creation.

The history behind this goes that European conquerors imported African slaves from various parts of West Africa into a large part of the Americas, mostly because they had a difficult time persuading the indigenous populations to work for them. By 1553, the numbers of imported African slaves outnumbered the Europeans in Mexico (Herbison-Evans), so there was a substantial influence from three distinct ethnic groups. Dancing was an important part in all three of these cultures. A gradual fusion of the three cultures occurred through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and this produced a new culture: Creole. Many foreign traditions were “creolized,” including dance and song. The danzón was one of the first creole dances, featuring adopted syncopated rhythms that become more complex over time. This syncopation is now a feature of all the Latin-American dances.

           

Latinos and non-Latinos alike can identify with the Latin dance style, but often mainstream Americans do not realize that there is a history and purpose entwined in the beats and rhythms associated with these dances. As Priscilla Renta, writer and salsa performer, Latin dance “is often stripped of its cultural politics —rooted in a history of slavery and colonization in the Caribbean and Latin America —for mass consumption” (142). The meanings become lost or pushed aside, turning the dance into something hollow or insignificant. Ruben Blaze, salsa singer, songwriter, and Latin activist, says that he sings of the political prisoners of Latin America and “the sadness of losing all their freedom” (Beats of the Heart). In short, music and politics go hand in hand in authentic Latin music, as sometimes that is or has been a peoples only reprieve—to sing and to dance. Latin immigrants experienced much oppression in the earlier parts of this century, so song and dance was often a way to escape their troubles. Shay explains that “dance became a vehicle for displaying specific national identities” (174), so it was not only a mode of escape but also a celebration of culture.

           

Take, for example, the salsa genre, a style that is arguably the most popular of all the Latin dances in the United States. Latin-influenced dance music was produced in New York City and elsewhere in the 1940s when the Cuban and Puerto Rican population was rapidly growing in size and influence. The arrival of what is now considered to be the salsa really was not until the 1960s. It evolved from various other Latin dance styles like the son, along with the rumba and guaracha (Manuel 4). At the heart of most Latin music styles are the mestizo influences from African slaves, European colonists, and indigenous peoples. These combined with American jazz undertones constitute the backbone of what is now the salsa, so it is really something that evolved here from a multitude of different cultural influences. When native dancers do the salsa, they are connected to their histories and origins in a significant and tangible way.

           

The history of the bachata is also another illuminating example of a Latin dance with a complex history. It is one of the more risqué of the Latin dances that have become popular here in the United States. Excessive hip action combined with a very sensual tension between the partners are likely to make the more conservative folks cringe, but there can be a particular kind of grace and beauty in the movements. Understanding its history makes it even seem rather poetic; it originated in the Dominican Republic and was at one point banned under the rule of General Trujillo in the1930s (The Bachata Chronicles). During his thirty years in power, he oversaw perhaps the bloodiest three decades in the country's history. Dubbed El Jefe—the Judge—by many, it is estimated that Trujillo was directly responsible for over 50,000 deaths before his assassination in 1961. In his reign of oppression, brutal force was used against actual or perceived members of any opposition. Dancing fell victim as well. The bachata was outlawed, and those found playing or dancing this style were liable to be jailed as peoples’ freedom of expression was taken away from them. Yet the dance survived as folks danced on in secret, like an underground society of dance. The exaggerated hip pop in the basic step of the dance is said to carry extra significance, as if “that little hop was like trying to free their feet from something” (The Bachata Chronicles). The dance was a form of liberation, if only for a moment.

           

Clearly, the over-generalized term of “Latin dance” in America is misleading. The histories of the salsa to the bachata are each pieces of cultural identity to Cuba/Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, respectively, just as the tango is to Argentina, the samba is to Brazil, and the mariachi is to Mexico. To native dancers, dance and music can be an expression of history, origin, and politics. However, this meaning is often lost to mainstream Americans who enjoy the dances as fun pastimes.

           

Latin dance scholar and performer, Priscilla Renta, suggests that “the physiology of the dance is of extreme importance regardless of who is performing it; it is not mutually exclusive from the Latino/a identity politics” (143). In other words, Latin dancing is both a physical and intellectual activity for native dancers, reaffirming the idea that dance and politics go hand in hand. Choreographer Anthony Shay theorizes that ethnic dancing has allowed many Americans to create more exciting, exotic, and romantic identities because there are specific deficiencies in the U.S. cultural identity (169). This suggests that Americans have a washed out identity of their own and therefore try to relate with other cultures through song and dance. Both these opinions might certainly be part of the allure for such a broad array of American participants, but what Shay and Renta do not address is the attraction of the very mood of the physical dance. It elicits more than just a historical connection, and there is more literal and direct meaning to the physiology of the style. The dance is not just an escape to another cultural identity, but also to a personal identity.

           

If one was to delve into the ethnology of Latin culture, it is apparent that as a whole, it is largely a male-dominated group of people. This male machismo translates to their dances in a very literal manner; it is inextricably entwined in the music, the footwork, and even the general attitude surrounding the culture. As the academically esteemed Latin feminist writer and activist, Frances Aparicio, points out, salsa contains contending ideologies like “patriarchal values, love songs, Christian themes, eroticism, politically progressive texts, nostalgic allusions to emigration, urban life, reaffirmations of race and ethnicity, AIDS, and so on,” but it consistently articulates misogynistic attitudes toward women (668). As she deconstructs the gender inscriptions in different songs, it becomes clear that women are objectified in Latin music. For Latin dances like the salsa or the bachata, there are certain roles one must assume to truly experience the nature of the dance. To be a good lead, one must direct the flow of the dance and communicate his will through body gestures rather than voice. A good follow assumes a more passive role and must listen and obey readily to these subtle cues, spinning or dipping or moving when she is told to. In essence, the female follow is like a flashy puppet, and the lead is her puppet master. Obviously, it is not as black and white as that; both dancers have freedom to add his or her special flair and show personal expression, which is the main function of dance. However, it is inarguably largely a patriarchal exercise.

           

Machismo is defined as a strong sense of masculine pride and a strong or exaggerated sense of power or the right to dominate. Arguably, this very theme which is prevalent in Latin dance is part of the allure for mainstream Americans. During the same era as Latin dance was popularizing in the United States, there was also a feminist movement where women began playing more active roles as leaders and independent people. In essence, there became a shift in the social structure in the United States. In a society where women are not only self-directing but can even outcompete men, perhaps it is attractive to participate in an activity where the man has total control and the woman’s only responsibility is to smile and be told what to do. It is an escape to simpler times with binary gender roles.

           

In any case, Latin dance encompasses many different art forms and attitudes from varying origins and locations. For some people these dances are an integral part of identity, politics, and history; for others, dance is an outlet to assume an exotic identity. Still for others, the dances may simply be recreational activities and something to do. Whatever the reason may be, it is clear that it has the ability to move people at an emotional level. Latin music is at its core a multiethnic phenomenon, with its Afro-Indo-European roots, and as such it should continue to spread among and between people across borders. Like food and laughter, music and dance is best shared, be it with a partner or across an entire society.

Works Cited

Aparicio, Frances R. Listening to Salsa: Gender, Latin Popular Music and Puerto Rican Culture. Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1998.

Bachata Chronicles. Dir. Nino Acosta. Perf. Bachateros y Bachateras All-Star Cast. Nino Acosto Films. 2010. Film.

           

Beats of the Heart: Salsa: Latin Pop Music in the Cities. Dir. Jeremy Marre. Perf. Ray Barretto, Ruben Blades, and Willie Colon. Harcourt Films. 1979. Film.

Herbison-Evans, Don. “History of Latin-American Dancing.” Linus Education. 2011. University of Sydney. 1 May 2012.

Manuel, Peter. Popular Musics of the Non-Western World. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 1988.

Renta, Priscilla. "Salsa Dance: Latino/A History In Motion." Centro Journal 16.2 (2004): 138-157. Academic Search Premier. Web. 17 May 2012.

Shay, Anthony. Dancing Across Borders: The American Fascination with Exotic Dance Forms. North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2008.

Latin Dance in the United States

Most dance styles in the United States originated from outside of the country in vastly different places around the world. Aside from a handful of dances like the Charleston or the illustrious robot dance, there are very few purely “American” dances. Be it ballet or bolero, the flamenco or the foxtrot, each has its own intricate history and has evolved through time before being incorporated into this culture. It is safe to say that westerners are completely captivated by the exotic dance form.# That of Latin cultures, in particular, has inspired many musical and dance movements throughout the last century or so.  Millions of Americans now participate in some kind Latin dance, hypnotized by its exotic yet approachable allure. Most any extant form— from the merengue, rumba, mambo, son, danzón, samba, capoeira, cha cha, la bachata—is practiced within the borders of this country. Most people can appreciate the euphoric feeling that dancing elicits, for that is universal. However, their cultural significance is often overlooked. In this paper, I will explore the origins a specific Latin forms—the ever-popular salsa—and its evolution in the United States.   
   
The broad category of “Latin American dance” is characterized generally as fast-paced and sensual, with obvious hip movements and distinctive partnered steps. However, this label encompasses a very wide range of styles. The term “Latin America” encompasses the nations of South and Central America and the Caribbean, so the diversity among Latin dances is great. What all of them seem to have in common is a blending of various influences. Dance choreographer Anthony Shay explains that “many of the Latin American dances have folk dance or social dance roots, some of the dances of African origins have spiritual and religious roots, and local as well as Spanish, European, and African origins.”# Latin music dance is a convolution of the beats and rhythms of many different cultures, blending Indigenous, European, and African forms together into a truly mestizo, or mixed, creation. The history behind this goes that European conquerors imported African slaves from various parts of West Africa into a large part of the Americas, mostly because they had a difficult time persuading the indigenous populations to work for them. By 1553, the numbers of imported African slaves outnumbered the Europeans in Mexico,# so there was a substantial influence from three distinct ethnic groups. Dancing was an important part in all three of these cultures. A gradual fusion of the three cultures occurred through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and this produced a new culture: Creole. Many foreign traditions were “creolized,” including dance and song. The danzón was one of the first creole dances, featuring adopted syncopated rhythms that become more complex over time. This syncopation is now a feature of all the Latin-American dances. A slower, more refined version of the danzón evolved with the abbreviated name of the son. This dance is said to be the closest relative to the salsa in its relatively recent history.
   
Although la salsa may seem to most United States residents to be a quintessential Latin dance, it is interesting to find that its modern form developed here in America. This Cuban- and Puerto Rican-style dance music was produced in New York City and elsewhere in the 1940s. The birth of what is now considered to be the salsa really was not until the 1960s. It evolved from various other Latin dance styles like the son, as previously mentioned, along with the rumba and guaracha.# These constitute the backbone of what is now the salsa.
   
The marriage of European, African, and Indigenous rhythms had a love affair with American music, and salsa was one result. “Salsa” is translated from Spanish to mean “sauce” and specifically refers to a spicy spice, which is especially appropriate considering its multi-cultural origins.  The syncopated beats and the blending of African drum rhythms and Spanish guitar combined with American jazz instrumentation and improvisational skills. With heavy use of complicated percussion rhythms, including sounds from the clave, maracas, conga bongo, tambora, bato, and cowbell, to name a few, the instruments and the singers often mimic the call and response patterns of traditional African songs, and the segue into the chorus. Other traditional salsa instruments include the vibraphone, bass, guitar, violin, piano, accordion, flute, marima, and a brass section of trombone, trumpet, and saxophone. Salsa is danced on music with two bars of four beats, with the basic steps on the 1-2-3, 5-6-7. Songs may be fast at up to about 240 beats per minute or slow at around 140 beats per minute, but it is always upbeat and energetic.# Salsa is a spot or lot dance, meaning that a couple occupies a fixed area on the dance floor and is not required to travel over the dance floor like in the samba. “The same rhythms are in all salsa music,” according to singer Celia Cruz,# dubbed the queen of salsa music. This standard of salsa basics is simple and easily recognized, but with all of the various instrumentals and vocals layered one over the other, there are limitless possibilities to work with the essential rhythms. 
   
“If there is no dance, there is not music,” asserted the king of Latin music, Tito Puentes—and certainly he out of anybody would understand this sentiment. Known as the sultan of salsa, or the "high priest of the salsa music,”# Puentes paved the way for salsa music with a handful of others. "Innovations made by Puerto Rican musicians such as Tito Puente, Tito Rodriguez, Willie Cologne, and Hector Lebold transformed the Afro-Cubano music to a unique New York-Latin music. Modern salsa was something that evolved here from different cultural influences making what some might consider a home grown American phenomenon!"# Musicians utilized the ground works of earlier Latin music and made it their own, coining a unique style. 
   
 The evolution and proliferation of the modern day salsa was influenced by two major factors: Cuban and Puerto Rican immigrants coming into the United States, and Americans experiencing a hint of Latin culture at its origin and taking some of it home with them. In 1898, U.S. soldiers got a taste for Cuban music during the war in Cuba. Later, during the Prohibition in the United States, Americans went to Cuba where drinking was legal and became enthralled with the Latin rhythms. So the foreign style was not completely unknown to Americans when Latin immigrants moved north and brought with them their music. However, the dance had more than an aesthetic value for migrants; certainly, the salsa and its predecessors brought a little reminiscence of home for many people, and “dance became a vehicle for displaying specific national identities.”# An estimated quarter of the population of New York has roots in Cuba and Puerto Rico,# and dance is one way to keep their culture alive. The origins and meanings attached to such recreations are often lost on the United States populations who flock to classes and workshops to get their dance on. 
   
The salsa has evolved into a dance craze here in the United States, but “many, if not most, of those mainstream Americans who dance Latin American dances have little idea of the specific countries and societies in which a dance originated.”# They regard the dance styles as dangerously sexy and try to reflect that when they dance the exotic Latin form, but do not realize there is a history and purpose in the beats and rhythms. Ruben Blaze, salsa singer, songwriter, and activist, says that he sings of the political prisoners of Latin America, of “the sadness of losing all their freedom.”# Music and politics go hand in hand in Latin music, as sometimes that is a peoples only reprieve—to sing and to dance. Latin immigrants experienced much oppression in earlier parts of this century. Of course, that is not to say that Americans should not partake in the exotic dance forms; like food and laughter, music and dance is best shared, be it with a partner or across an entire society. On top of that, Latin music is at its core a multiethnic phenomenon, with its Afro-Indo-European roots, so Americans just add to its diversity as it constantly evolves through time. People should enjoy the cross-cultural dances, but perhaps they might also keep in mind that these songs originate from a past fraught with turmoil. With an understanding of its origin, perhaps people can greater appreciate the art form.

Bibliography

Beats of the Heart: Salsa: Latin Pop Music in the Cities. Dir. Jeremy Marre. Perf. Ray Barretto, Ruben Blades, and Willie Colon. Harcourt Films. 1979. Film.

Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2011

Chenn, Todd. “The History of Salsa Dancing.” NYSalsa101. 2008. Educational series. .

Duany, Jorge. The Puerto Rican Nation On the Move: Identities on the Island and in the United States. North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press, 2002.

Herbison-Evans, Don. “History of Latin-American Dancing.” Linus Education. 2011. University of Sydney. 1 May 2012.

Manuel, Peter. Popular Musics of the Non-Western World. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 1988.

Mian, Tariq. “Salsa and Bachata.” Salsa Twist. 2012. The Dances. 1 May 2012.

The Law of Unintended Consequences: GM-Foods

The law of unintended consequences states that the “actions of people—and especially of government—always have effects that are unanticipated or unintended,” as defined by professor at Columbia University, Rob Norton (2008). In other words, every deed done for an intended result will elicit some kind of inadvertent and unexpected influence elsewhere. What seems harmless or even beneficial can ultimately be destructive in some way or another. One such seemingly positive development is that of genetic engineering. This technology has made considerable progress in enhancing food crops, resulting in increased productivity in the hopes of providing more sustenance for living beings. However, though introducing genetically modified organisms—or GMOs—into the global ecosystem may or may not fulfill the expectations of feeding the growing human population, it also runs the risk of falling victim to the law of unintended consequences. Even though some altered products are already on the market, more studies need to be funded and published before these foods are made further available for human consumption.

           

A brochure outlining the matter issued in 2001 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) defines genetic engineering as “the manipulation of an organism’s genetic endowment by introducing or eliminating specific genes through modern molecular biology techniques” (1). Scientists have the ability to transform and engineer the DNA of organisms to suit an intended purpose by splicing DNA from one species into a targeted species, whether it be to make an organism bigger, tougher, fatter, or sweeter, etc. The technology has successfully altered cat DNA so that felines fluoresce, changed goat DNA so that they can produce spider web silk in their milk, and scientists have even produced venomous cabbage that expresses scorpion poison genes (Moss MNN). Though it sounds like the premise of a science fiction novel, or is redolent of the creation of Frankenstein’s monster, this science has taken off and a handful of genetically modified organisms are readily available to consumers, with many more GMOs currently in production.

           

Though it might seem like scientists are merely playing games in the laboratory, testing the limits of human ability as they stretch the bounds of genetic manipulation—almost as if they are playing god, in essence—this technology goes beyond basic human curiosity and fascination. The total world population has surpassed 7 billion people, and that number is projected to double in the next fifty years or so. With all those mouths to feed, supplying adequate nutrition will indubitably prove to be a major challenge. GM foods could theoretically be the answer to a potential worldwide food crisis. According to Deborah Whitman who attended an FDA open meeting that outlined the issues involved with GMO, the benefits of GM foods are such that they could meet the need of food in this growing population. She reports that some key advantages to GMO over normal crops are increased herbicide tolerance, pest and disease resistance, cold and drought tolerance, and tolerance to greater salinities (2). GMOs are being developed to survive and thrive in adverse conditions, so they could overcome inclement weather, pesky pests, and potentially even grow year round. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights reaffirms the right that human beings have to adequate food, specifically that there be an “availability of food in a quantity and quality sufficient to satisfy the dietary needs of individuals, free from adverse substances” (qtd in FAO). In other words, as a basic necessity of life, all humans should have at least enough food and nutrients to sustain healthy living. Therein lies the overarching problem; the codicil that specifies that the food must be free from adverse substances amends the statement. Not only do all people deserve access to plenty of food, the food must be at a particular standard. As of yet, there are very few published studies done on animals pertaining to GMOs, and published research on human studies is virtually non-existent. In other words, there is absolutely no definitive way of knowing for sure what kinds of long-term or short-term effects GMOs have on humans. GM food will not be the answer for any food crisis problems if it causes mutations, disease, allergies, or other unfavorable effects. It may very well be an adverse substance that the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights specifically mentions.

           

According to the FAO brochure, GM corn and soybeans that have been modified to resist insects and/or herbicides are available for public consumption (11). Today, 45 percent of U.S. corn and 85 percent of U.S. soybeans are genetically altered. Because of the enormous subsidies put on corn and soy, there is a huge surplus on these crops. In turn, some form of these foods can be found in almost any kind of processed food, from tomato sauce to cereal to fruit juice. Around 70 to 75 percent of processed foods on grocery store shelves contain genetically engineered ingredients (Young). In other words, GMO foods are already prevalent in the public market. 

           

So why is the matter of genetically modified organisms even an issue? If people are already exposed to these products, why not continue advancing this technology, manipulating organisms to meet humans’ own needs and desires? To answer these questions, one must consider the law of unintended consequences. Not even bearing in mind the environmental, agricultural, or ethical implications that might possibly arise with the drastic manipulation of an organisms’ genetic code, there will in all likelihood be some kind of effect on the human body with exposure to these GMOs, at least if the few animal tests published are any indication. In an article titled “Genetically Modified Foods,” Doctor Steve Windley states that “there is research to say that GMO foods negatively affect the immune system and inflammation in animal studies” (1). One example of published research that supports the claim that GMO has proven to have ill effects on animal health was Dr. Arpad Pusztai’s study concerning GMO potatoes. His work showed that exposure to these modified potatoes led to a greater prevalence of damage to the intestinal tracts of rats with other changes to the liver, brain, and testicles compared to rats that were fed unmodified potatoes (Windley 2). The unintended consequence of the GM potatoes was the negative impact on the rats’ health; what was meant to be nourishment turned out to be quite toxic. If there is a definite correlation between GM foods with negative animal health, there is likely one between GMO and human health.          

           

The validity of Dr. Pusztai’s study has been put into question and publicly attacked by critics. Supposedly, the potatoes in question were modified only to test the methodology and were never meant for human or animal consumption (Whitman 7). Still, the study should raise red flags in the scientific community and stimulate further research. Even if the results were inconclusive, the fact that a GM product triggered a negative response from a live specimen provides a clue that perhaps the technology is flawed. Doctor Windley appears to be very tentative about making GMOs available for human consumption. In his article, he poses a number of questions that scientists could explore and consumers might consider: “Can the bacteria and viruses used to alter the DNA in these plants also affect the bacteria in our gut? …. Will the bacteria our guts take in start making its own pesticide in our GI tract? Will these plants start making a totally new protein that is indigestible or harmful to us?” (1). The list of every possible effect is endless. There are so many conceivable concerns to reflect upon and ponder before genetically modified foods can possibly be considered as safe, with no adverse effects. In other words, many of these questions are testable and should therefore be investigated since it directly relates to individuals’ health.

           

People are basically acting as human guinea pigs on a worldwide experiment testing the effects of GMO on human health. In reality, this global experiment should actually be held in a science laboratory. If GMO is to be considered a viable solution for a potential hunger crisis, scientists must be funded in order that they can respond to the plentiful questions surrounding genetically modified organisms and human health. Altering the genetic material of any organism is no small affair; it is like changing the very identity of the phylogenetic kingdom it belongs to. Mary Shelley’s Victor Frankenstein overstepped the bounds of science in becoming the creator of a being that never should have lived, and scientists must be weary not to overstep their bounds. This technology can never be justified if the GMOs become the equivalent to Frankenstein’s monster—though it desired to do good, it left a trail of horror and foreboding in its wake. Manipulating the natural biological laws of the world is risky, even if it is supposedly intended for a purpose of good. We must be wary of a technology that has effects not backed by scientific method. The law of unintended consequences will punish those who do not consider the whole picture, and it will even go further to punish those who do and those who are oblivious to the matter. Ignorance is no alibi in the court of the natural law. GM technology is a lucrative business and may appear to be a promising solution to the impending food crisis at hand, but without the backing of accredited scientific research, there is no justification in feeding genetically modified foods to the populace. Genetically altering foods and animals may seem like a brilliant idea now, but we should not turn a blind eye to the potential unintended consequences it could have.

Works Cited

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Genetically Modified Organisms, Consumers, Food Safety and the Environment. Rome, 2001. Online.

Moss, Laura. “12 Bizarre Examples of Genetic Engineering.” Mother Nature Network: Improve Your World. 2012. Green Technology Research and Innovations. 7 May 2012.

Rob Norton. "Unintended Consequences." The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. 2008. Library of Economics and Liberty. 1 May 2012 .

Whitman, Deborah. “Genetically Modified Foods: Harmful or Helpful.” CSA Discovery Guides. April 2000. Community Sustained Agriculture.

Windley, Steve, MD. “Genetically Modified Foods.” Pure Health MD. 2008. Pure Health Corporation. < www.PureHealthMD.com>

Young, Saundra. “Safety of genetically engineered salmon debated.” CNNHealth. 2010. CNN. 15 May 2012

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